Fundamental Concepts Of Ethernet Technology Information Technology Essay

Fundamental Concepts Of Ethernet Technology Information Technology Essay In this module, we will discuss the fundamental concepts of networking, Ethernet technology, and data transmission in Ethernet networks. Module Objectives At the end of this module, you will be able to: Explain the seven network layers as defined by the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference model Describe, at a high level, the history of Ethernet List physical layer characteristics of Ethernet Explain the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex transmission in an Ethernet network Describe the structure of an Ethernet frame Explain how networks can be extended and segmented using various Ethernet devices, including hubs and switches Describe how frames are forwarded in an Ethernet network Explain, at a high level, how Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) function Network Fundamentals This section provides a brief overview of Local Area Network (LAN) technology. We will discuss LAN architecture from a functional perspective. A network is commonly divided into seven functional layers referred to as the OSI Reference model. In addition, we will briefly discuss the use of addressing in LANs. Instructor Note Point out that this section only touches briefly on LAN concepts, and students may want to explore LAN technology in more depth on their own. Network Layers A complete LAN implementation involves a number of functions that, in combination, enable devices to communicate over a network. To understand how Ethernet fits into this overall set of functions, we can use the OSI Reference model. The OSI Reference model was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Instructor Note You can introduce the discussion of the OSI Reference model by comparing analysis of the model to peeling an onion. Shown in Figure 1-1, the OSI Reference model defines seven functional layers that process data when data is transmitted over a network. When devices communicate over a network, data travels through some or all of the seven functional layers. The figure shows data being transmitted from Station A, the source, to Station B, the destination. The transmission begins at the Application layer. As data (referred to as the payload) is transmitted by Station A down through the layers, each layer adds its overhead information to the data from the layer above. (The process of packaging layer-specific overhead with the payload is referred to as encapsulation discussed later in this course.) Upon reaching the Physical layer, the data is placed on the physical media for transmission. The receiving device reverses the process, unpackaging the contents layer by layer, thus allowing each layer to effectively communicate with its peer layer. Ethernet operates at Layer 2, the Data Link layer. Using Figure 1-1 as a reference, we will briefly discuss what occurs at each layer. Figure 1-1: The OSI Reference Model Application Layer The Application layer, Layer 7 (L7), is responsible for interacting with the software applications that send data to another device. These interactions are governed by Application layer protocols, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Presentation Layer The Presentation layer, Layer 6 (L6), performs data translation, compression, and encryption. Data translation is required when two different types of devices are connected to each other, and both use different ways to represent the data. Compression is required to increase the transmission flow of data. Encryption is required to secure data as it moves to the lower layers of the OSI Reference model. Session Layer The Session layer, Layer 5 (L5), is responsible for creating, maintaining, and terminating communication among devices. A session is a logical link created between two software application processes to enable them to transmit data to each other for a period of time. Logical links are discussed later in this course. Transport Layer The Transport layer, Layer 4 (L4), is responsible for reliable arrival of messages and provides error checking mechanisms and data flow controls. The Transport layer also performs multiplexing to ensure that the data from various applications is transported using the same transmission channel. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link, such as a fiber optic cable. The data flow through the Transport layer is governed by transmission protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which are beyond the scope of this course. Network Layer The Network layer, Layer 3 (L3), is responsible for moving data across interconnected networks by comparing the L3 source address with the L3 destination address. The Network layer encapsulates the data received by higher layers to create packets. The word packet is commonly used when referring to data in the Network layer. The Network layer is also responsible for fragmentation and reassembly of packets. Data Link Layer The Data Link layer, Layer 2 (L2), responds to requests sent by the Network layer and sends service requests to the Physical layer. The Data Link layer is responsible for defining the physical addressing, establishing logical links among local devices, sequencing of frames, and error detection. The Ethernet frame is a digital data transmission unit on Layer 2. The word frame is commonly used when referring to data in the Data Link layer. The Data Link layer has been subdivided into two sub-layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC). LLC, defined in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.2 specification, manages communications among devices over a link. LLC supports both connection-oriented (physical, ex an Ethernet switch) and connectionless (wireless, ex a wireless router) services. The MAC sub-level manages Ethernet frame assembly and dissembly, failure recovery, as well as access to, and routing for, the physical media. This will be discussed in more detail in this module. Physical Layer The Physical layer, Layer 1 (L1), performs hardware-specific, electrical, and mechanical operations for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the link among communicating network systems. The Physical layer is responsible for transmitting the data as raw bits over the transmission media. Now that we have reviewed the OSI Reference model, lets discuss addressing of network devices. Stations Network devices that operate at the Data Link layer or higher are referred to as stations. Stations are classified as either end stations or intermediate stations. End stations run end-user applications and are the source or final destination of data transmitted over a network. Intermediate stations relay information across the network between end stations. A characteristic of stations is that they are addressable. In the next section, we discuss the specifics of addressing. Addressing Each device in an Ethernet network is assigned an address that is used to connect with other devices in the network. This address is referred to as the MAC address and is typically a permanent address assigned by the device manufacturer. Addressing is used in the network to identify the source station and the destination station or stations of transmitted data. As shown in Figure 1-2, the MAC address consists of 48 bits (6 bytes), typically expressed as colon-separated, hexadecimal pairs. Figure 1-2: MAC Address Structure The MAC address consists of the following: Individual / Group (I/G) Bit: For destination address, if the I/G bit = 0, the destination of the frame is a single station. This is referred to as a unicast address. If the I/G bit = 1, the destination is a group of stations. This is referred to as a multicast address. In source addresses, the I/G bit = 1. Universal / Local (U/L) Bit: The U/L bit identifies whether the MAC address is universally unique (U/L bit = 0) or only unique in the LAN in which it is located. Vendor-assigned MAC addresses are always universally unique. A locally unique MAC address is assigned by the network administrator. Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI): This typically identifies the network equipment manufacturer. OUIs are assigned to organizations by the IEEE. To locate information on the OUI associated with a manufacturer go to the following website: http://standards.ieee.org/regauth/oui/index.shtml Vendor-Assigned Bits: These bits are assigned by the vendor to uniquely identify a specific device. Following is an example of a MAC address: 00:1B:38:7C:BE:66 Later in this module, we discuss how MAC addresses are used in Ethernet networks. Introduction to Ethernet Ethernet is an internationally-accepted, standardized LAN technology. It is one of the simplest and most cost-effective LAN networking technologies in use today. Ethernet has grown through the development of a set of standards that define how data is transferred among computer networking devices. Although several other networking methods are used to implement LANs, Ethernet remains the most common method in use today. While Ethernet has emerged as the most common LAN technology for a variety of reasons, the primary reasons include the following: Ethernet is less expensive than other networking options. Easy is easy to install and provision the various components. Ethernet is faster and more robust than the other LAN technologies. Ethernet allows for an efficient and flexible network implementation. History of Ethernet Ethernet was invented in 1973 by Bob Metcalfe and David Boggs at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Ethernet was originally designed as a high-speed LAN technology for connecting Xerox Palo Alto graphical computing systems and high-speed laser printers. In 1979, Xerox ® began work with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Intel ® to develop a standardized, commercial version of Ethernet. This partnership of DEC, Intel, and Xerox (DIX) developed Ethernet Version 1.0, also known as DIX80. Further refinements resulted in Ethernet Version 2, or DIX82, which is still in use today. Project 802 In 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed Project 802 to create an international standard for LANs. Due to the complexity of the technology and the emergence of competing LAN technologies and physical media, five working groups were initially formed. Each working group developed standards for a particular area of LAN technology. The initial working groups consisted of the following: IEEE 802.1: Overview, Architecture, Internetworking, and Management IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control IEEE 802.3: Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Media Access Control (MAC) IEEE 802.4: Token Bus MAC and Physical (PHY) IEEE 802.5: Token Ring MAC and PHY Additional working groups have since been added to address other areas of LAN technology. The standards developed by these working groups are discussed as we move through this course. However, lets look at IEEE 802.3, which addresses standards specific to Ethernet. IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.3 was published in 1985 and is now supported with a series of supplements covering new features and capabilities. Like all IEEE standards, the contents of supplements are added to the standard when it is revised. Now adopted by almost all computer vendors, IEEE 802.3 consists of standards for three basic elements: The physical media (fiber or copper) used to transport Ethernet signals over a network MAC rules that enable devices connected to the same transmission media to share the transmission channel Format of the Ethernet frame, which consists of a standardized set of frame fields We will discuss the transmission media used in Ethernet networks, the MAC rules, and the Ethernet frame later in this module. Instructor Note Tell the class that we will discuss the transmission media used in Ethernet networks, the MAC rules, and the Ethernet frame later in this module. You can briefly explain the differences among LANs, WANs, and MANs to the students. Ethernet Transmission Fundamentals This section covers basic fundamentals of data transmission on Ethernet networks. Specifically, we will cover the following topics: Physical layer characteristics Communication modes Ethernet frames Repeaters and hubs Ethernet bridges and switches Multilayer switches and routers Ethernet Virtual LANs (VLANs) Ethernet beyond the LAN Physical Layer Characteristics Our discussion of physical layer characteristics covers both the physical media over which network communications flow and the rate at which communications occur. In fact, the nomenclature for the various types of Ethernet is based on both of these characteristics. The Ethernet type is referred to in the following format: n-BASE-phy, such as 10BASE-T where: n is the data rate in megabits per second (Mbps). BASE indicates that the media is dedicated to only Ethernet services. phy is a code assigned to a specific type of media. A variety of media and transmission rates are available for Ethernet networks. The major media types used today are: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) copper cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) copper cable Fiber optic cables The IEEE 802.3 standard identifies the following types of media for an Ethernet connection: 10BASE2: Defined in IEEE 802.3a, 10BASE2 Ethernet uses thin wire coaxial cable. It allows cable runs of up to 185 meters (607 feet). A maximum of 30 workstations can be supported on a single segment. This Ethernet type is no longer in use for new installations. 10BASE-T: Defined in IEEE 802.3i, 10BASE-T uses UTP copper cable and RJ-45 connectors to connect devices to an Ethernet LAN. The RJ-45 is a very common 8-pin connector. Fast Ethernet: Defined in IEEE 802.3u, Fast Ethernet is used for transmission at a rate of 100 Mbps. It includes 100BASE-TX, which uses UTP copper cable. With this type of cable, each segment can run up to 100 meters (328 feet). Another media option specified in this standard is 100BASE-FX, which uses optical fiber supporting data rates of up to 100 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet (GbE): Defined in IEEE 802.3z, GbE uses fiber for transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps. GbE includes 1000BASE-SX for transmission over Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF), and 1000BASE-LX for transmission over Single-Mode Fiber (SMF). The differences between Multi-Mode and Single-Mode are the physical makeup of the fiber itself and the light source that is normally used multi-mode normally uses an LED while single-mode uses a laser. Multi-mode has limited distance capability when compared to single-mode. 1000BASE-T: Defined in IEEE 802.3ab, 1000BASE-T provides GbE service over twisted pair copper cable. 10 GbE: Defined in IEEE 802.3ae, 10 GbE transmits Ethernet frames at data rates up to 10 Gbps. Communication Modes Ethernet can operate in either of two communication modes, half-duplex or full-duplex. Ethernet MAC establishes procedures that all devices sharing a communication channel must follow. Half-duplex mode is used when devices on a network share a communication channel. Full-duplex mode is used when devices have no contention from other devices on a network connection. Lets discuss each of these modes in more detail. Half-Duplex Mode As shown in Figure 1-3, a device operating in half-duplex mode can send or receive data but cannot do both at the same time. Originally, as specified in the DIX80 standard, Ethernet only supported half-duplex operation. Figure 1-3: Half-Duplex Transmission Half-duplex Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD protocol to control media access in shared media LANs. With CSMA/CD, devices can share media in an orderly way. Devices that contend for shared media on a LAN are members of the same collision domain. In a collision domain, a data collision occurs when two devices on the LAN transmit data at the same time. The CSMA/CD protocol enables recovery from data collisions. With CSMA/CD, a device that has data to transmit performs carrier sense. Carrier sense is the ability of a device to monitor the transmission media for the presence of any data transmission. If the device detects that another device is using the transmission media, the device waits for the transmission to end. When the device detects that the transmission media is not being used, the device starts transmitting data. Figure 1-4 shows how CSMA/CD handles a data collision. When a collision occurs, the transmitting device stops the transmission and sends a jamming signal to all other devices to indicate the collision. After sending the jamming signal, each device waits for a random period of time, with each device generating its own time to wait, and then begins transmitting again. Figure 1-4: CSMA/CD Operation Full-Duplex Mode In the full-duplex communication mode, a device can send and receive data at the same time as shown in Figure 1-5. In this mode, the device must be connected directly to another device using a Point-to-Point (P2P) link that supports independent transmit and receive paths. (P2P is discussed later in this course.) Figure 1-5: Full-Duplex Transmission Full-duplex operation is restricted to links meeting the following criteria: The transmission media must support the simultaneous sending and receiving of data. Twisted pair and fiber cables are capable of supporting full-duplex transmission mode. These include Fast Ethernet, GbE, and 10 GbE transmission media. The connection can be a P2P link connecting only two devices, or multiple devices can be connected to each other through an Ethernet switch. The link between both devices needs to be capable of, and configured for, full-duplex operation. CSMA/CD is not used for full-duplex communications because there is no possibility of a data collision. And, since each device can both send and receive data at the same time, the aggregate throughput of the link is doubled. (Throughput is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a certain period of time.) Ethernet Frames Lets discuss another fundamental aspect of Ethernet transmission the Ethernet frame. The Ethernet frame is used to exchange data between two Data Link layer points via a direct physical or logical link in an Ethernet LAN. The minimum size of an Ethernet frame is 64 bytes. Originally, the maximum size for a standard Ethernet frame was 1518 bytes; however, it is now possible that an Ethernet frame can be as large as 10,000 bytes (referred to as a jumbo frame). As shown in Figure 1-6, an Ethernet frame consists of the following fields: (NOTE: The first two fields are added/stripped at Layer 1 and are not counted as part of the 1518 byte standard frame.) Preamble: This 7-byte field establishes bit synchronization with the sequence of 10101010 in each byte. Start Frame Delimiter: This 1-byte field indicates the start of the frame at the next byte using a bit sequence of 10101011. Destination MAC Address: This field contains the MAC hardware address of the Ethernet frames destination. Source MAC Address: This field contains the MAC hardware address of the device sending the frame. Type / Length: The specific use of this field depends on how the frame was encapsulated. When type-encapsulation is used, the field identifies the nature of the client protocol running above the Ethernet. When using length-encapsulation, this field indicated the number of bytes in the Data field. The IEEE maintains a list of accepted values for this field, the list may be viewed at: http://standards.ieee.org/regauth/ethertype/ Data: This field contains the data or payload that has been sent down from Layer 3 for packaging to Layer 2. Frame Check Sequence (FCS): This 32-bit field is used for checking the Ethernet frame for errors in bit transmission. FCS is also known as Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC). Figure 1-6: Ethernet Frame Now that we have defined the basic structure of an Ethernet frame, lets see how we can use the destination MAC address to create three different types of Ethernet frames. Unicast Frames An Ethernet frame intended for a single device on the network is a unicast frame. An example is shown in Figure 1-7. In this example, Station A is transmitting an FTP request to a specific FTP server on the network. The destination MAC address in the frames being sent for this request is the MAC address assigned to the FTP server by its manufacturer. Therefore, these frames are unicast frames, only intended specifically for one device on the network, the FTP server. Figure 1-7: Unicast Frame Transmission Multicast Frames Multicast is a mechanism that provides the ability to send frames to a specific group of devices on a network one sender to all who are set to receive. This is done by setting a frames destination MAC address to a multicast address assigned by a higher level protocol or application. However, devices must be enabled to receive frames with this multicast address. An example of multicast frames is shown in Figure 1-8. In this example, the video server is transmitting the same video channel, via an Ethernet switch, to a group of video display devices on the network. The destination MAC address is the multicast address assigned by the video application. The receiving stations are configured to accept Ethernet frames with this multicast address. Figure 1-8: Multicast Frame Transmission Broadcast Frames Broadcasting is a mechanism for sending data in broadcast frames to all the devices in a broadcast domain. A broadcast domain is defined as a set of devices that can communicate with each other at the Data Link layer. Therefore, in a network that does not include higher layer devices, all of the network devices are in the same broadcast domain. In broadcast frames, the hexadecimal destination MAC address is always ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff which, in binary notation, is a series of 48 bits, each set to a value of 1. All devices in the broadcast domain recognize and accept frames with this destination MAC address. Instructor Note Be sure that students understand hexadecimal vs. binary notation, but do not take this topic beyond the scope of this course. Since broadcasting reaches all devices within a broadcast domain, Ethernet can use this capability to perform various device setup and control functions. This is a very useful feature, allowing implementation and growth of a LAN with little intervention from a network administrator. Figure 1-9 shows a broadcast transmission in which Station A is transmitting frames with this broadcast destination MAC address. All devices in the same broadcast domain as Station A receive and process the broadcast frames. Figure 1-9: Broadcast Frame Now that we have covered some basic concepts for LANs and Ethernet transmission, lets continue by discussing how devices on Ethernet LANs are connected. Instructor Note Check the existing knowledge of students on the differences among switches, hubs, routers, and gateways. Initiate a discussion around the differences among these devices and their suitability to different applications. Repeaters and Hubs A very simple LAN topology consists of network devices that are all connected directly to a shared medium as shown in Figure 1-10. If we need to connect more devices to the LAN, we are limited by the characteristics of the shared media. Devices such as repeaters and hubs can be used to overcome distance limitations of the media, allowing the reach of the network to be extended. Figure 1-10: Simple LAN Topology Repeaters are Physical layer devices that regenerate a signal, which effectively allows the network segment to extend a greater distance. As shown in Figure 1-11, we can use the additional segment length to add more devices to the LAN. Keep in mind that devices added through implementation of repeaters are still in the same collision domain as the original devices. This results in more contention for access to the shared transmission media. Such devices are in little use today. Figure 1-11: LAN Extended with a Repeater As shown in Figure 1-12, hubs can also be used to extend the distance of a LAN segment. Hubs are Layer 1 (physical) devices. The advantage of a hub versus a repeater is that hubs provide more ports. Increased contention for media access still exists since the additional devices connected to the hub(s) are still in the same collision domain. Figure 1-12: LAN Extended with a Hub Ethernet Bridges and Switches Ethernet bridges and switches are Layer 2 (Data Link) devices that provide another option for extending the distance and broadcast domain of a network. Unlike repeaters and hubs, bridges and switches keep the collision domains of connected LAN segments isolated from each other as shown in Figure 1-13. Therefore, the devices in one segment do not contend with devices in another segment for media access. Figure 1-13: LAN Extended with an Ethernet Switch Frame Forwarding with Ethernet Switches As Layer 2 devices, Ethernet switches make frame-forwarding decisions based on source and destination MAC addresses. One of the processes used in making these decisions is MAC learning. To make efficient use of the data pathways that are dynamically cross connected within an Ethernet switch, the switch keeps track of the location of as many active devices as its design allows. When an Ethernet frame ingresses (enters) a switch, the switch inspects the frames source address to learn the location of the sender and inspects the destination address to learn the location of the recipient. This knowledge is kept in a MAC address table. Figure 1-14 shows an example of a MAC address table. As long as the sender remains connected to the same physical port that their MAC address was learned on, the switch will know which port to forward frames to that are destined for that particular senders address. Figure 1-14: MAC Address Table MAC address information stored in a MAC address table is not retained indefinitely. Each entry is time stamped; and if no activity is sensed for a period of time, referred to as an aging period, the inactive entry is removed. This is done so that only active devices occupy space in the table. This keeps the MAC address table from overloading and facilitates address lookup. The default aging period is typically five minutes. Figure 1-15 shows how an Ethernet switch forwards frames based on entries in the MAC address table. The forwarding process consists of the following steps: Inspect the incoming frames MAC destination address: If the MAC destination address is a broadcast address, flood it out all ports within the broadcast domain. If the MAC destination address is a unicast address, look for it in the MAC address table. If the address is found, forward the frame on the egress (exit) port where the NE knows the device can be reached. If not, flood it. Flooding allows communication even when MAC destination addresses are unknown. Along with multicast, which is actually a large set of special-purpose MAC addresses, network traffic can be directed to any number of devices on a network. Inspect the incoming frames MAC source address: If the MAC source address is already in the MAC address table, update the aging timer. This is an active device on the port through which it is connected. If the MAC source address is not currently in the MAC address table, add it in the list and set the aging timer. This is also an active device. Periodically check for MAC address table entries that have expired. These are no longer active devices on the port on which they were learned, and these table entries are removed. If a device is moved from one port to another, the device becomes active on the new ports MAC table. This is referred to as MAC motion. An Ethernet switch will purposely filter (drop) certain frames. Whether a frame is dropped or forwarded can depend on the switch configuration, but normal switch behavior drops any frame containing a destination address that the switch knows can be reached through the same port where the frame was received. This is done to prevent a device from receiving duplicate frames. Figure 1-15: Frame-Forwarding Process A MAC Learning and Broadcast Domain Analogy Mail Delivery Consider this following analogy to understand the concept of MAC learning and broadcast domain: Consider a situation where your friend wants to send you a birthday party invitation (the invitation represents an Ethernet frame). You and your friend live on the same street (the street represents a broadcast domain). However, there is a problem. Your friend does not know your house address so she writes her return (source) address on the birthday party invitation card and writes the street name as your (destination) address. Your friend drops the envelope in her mail box (your friends mail box represents a LAN) as shown in Figure 1-16. Figure 1-16: Broadcast Analogy, Part 1 When the mail carrier picks up the mail, he notices that the destination address is unknown. The postman goes to a copier and makes enough copies so that he can deliver one copy to each possible destination address on the street. This would mean every house on the street, except for your friends house, will get a copy of the invitation. After the postman has delivered the envelopes to all the houses (this process is analogous to a broadcast transmission), you receive the birthday party invitation and recognize your name on the envelope. So, you open the envelope and read the invitation. Figure 1-17: Broadcast Analogy, Part 2 All of your neighbors receive copies of the same envelope, but they see that the name is not theirs so they simply discard it. After reading the invitation, you send a thank you card back to your friend with your friends address; and you include a return (source) address. The postman sees that this envelope has a specific destination address so it can be delivered without broadcasting. It also has a source address, so the postman now knows your address. It is now possible to exchange mail directly with your friend without broadcasting letters to your neighbors. In other words, you can communicate using unicast transmission. If you and your friend were on different streets (broadcast domains), you would have never received your invitation card; and communication could have never occurred. Multilayer Switches and Routers In this course, our discussion of switching focuses on switching at the Data Link level since Ethernet is a Layer 2 technology. However, switching can also be

History of Soul Music

History of Soul Music Christina Ivery University of Phoenix RES/110 John Thomas February 11, 2010 Soul music was a voice for blacks during a time of war and segregation, aside of leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X.. As stated by a historian Peter Guralnick, â€Å"It was as if the rhythm and blues singer, like the jazz musician and professional athlete before him, were being sent out as an advance scout into hostile territory†. (Santoro,2003). John Ponomarenko says Soul music originated from African Spirituals, â€Å"the first references to spiritual songs sung by black slaves dated as far back as 1828-1850†. Black spirituals were often used as work songs and sometimes contained coded information s form of secret communication, songs such as â€Å"Deep River, Roll Jordan Roll, and Wade in the Water to name a few. Soul Music began in the late 1950’s and the early 1960’s. Many studios developed in inner cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Memphis and each had a sound of its own. This also encouraged competition and talent from all over the world. Soul music came at a time of the civil rights movement and gave all blacks a voice for their many battles within their neighborhoods and overseas as well. The staggering war on segregation was a major driving force for soul music during that time. The events in the Deep South inspired many musicians, for example; seeing black protestors hosed down in the streets with fire hydrants and beaten repeatedly with clubs as if their voices were lethal weapons. Soul music was originated in the United States primarily by African American musicians starting with the blending of gospel, rhythm, and blues. Gospel sounds and Christianity were far from the sounds of Ray Charles and James Brown singing of love, women, and good times. Piero Scaruffi stated, â€Å"James Brown, known as the King of soul, began a movement all on his own, captivating people with is powerful voice and his electrifying dance moves. â€Å"Say it aloud I’m Black and proud† was blazing from the radio sound in 1968, and said it all in the title. It became the new black national anthem. One of the first to enhance the use of a live band and gave his first choreographed show on Live at the Apollo†. Developed from a merge of gospel, blues, and jazz it came with emotions that could move anyone. Gene Santoro stated, â€Å"soul music was known as â€Å"white crossover music†, it was suddenly a way for blacks to be seen on television and most teen oriented music programs with close to no white stars†. This music was something of their own that was uplifting during a depressing time in history that everyone could dance with. Whites and blacks alike related for once because of the sounds of great soul music. The pioneers of soul music were known for their distinctive voices, voices that could only come from people who felt or was feeling traumatizing emotional pain. Their voices truly matched their ongoing struggle. Soul Music was the epitome of music in the 1960’s; many artists emerged as true musical superstars. Artists like Aretha Franklin from Detroit, who made her first recording as a gospel artist when she was the age of 14 with Columbia records signed by John Hammond. Stated by Richie Unterberger, â€Å"she made history with hit songs such as I never loved a man (the way that I love you), Respect, Chain of Fools, and I Say a Little Prayer. Soul music got people off their seats and clapping their hands, something that people could feel all through your body. Marvin Gaye was another soul singer that paved the way for musicians young and old, while also redefining soul. As stated by (Ankeny, 2008) â€Å"with one of the greatest songs to hit the charts that altered the face of black music â€Å"What’s going On† forged a sophisticated sound and incorporated jazz with classical elements†. What’s Going On also brought the sound of the spiritual believe back to the forefront of soul music. Once again soul was singing of the issues ranging from poverty and discrimination of the environment, drug abuse and political corruption, mainly the conflict in the Vietnam War. Other great hits included Ain’t No Mountain High Enough, You Precious Love and Your all I Need to Get By. Marvin sang of the issues of the times like no one else. I recall the day that Marvin Gaye was pronounced dead. My mother cried terribly as I imagine quite a large part of the world did that day. It was if soul was gone from that moment forth. It was sad moments in history that I myself will hold as a paused moment in time. However, this music brings me strength from the many songs that my ancestors before me sang for freedom or of agony; or the stories that are told through rhythm and blues that tell the history of blacks of sorrow and pain. Many songs can make people cry but it takes a mighty strong people to take that sorrow and turn it into something of their own. These artists left huge footsteps for new artist’s to follow in this time of confusion and free agency and free choice. Throughout all the chaos, soul has the few that are paving the way and would make our past icons proud of the music that these artist’s produce. Artists such as Erika Badu, Leela James, and Mary J. Blige are just a few of the icons today that keep the soul alive. For this reason soul music will not die for years to come. Soul music began with words that tell of history and how to achieve freedom. It tells Americas who we are, were we came from and where we want to go. So sing with me. References Ponomarenko, J. (2005, August) retrieved from ttp://www. localdial. com/users/jsyedu133/Soulreview/Understandingpages/the5. htm Peiro Scaruffi. (2005). A brief history of soul music. Retrieved from http://www. scaruffi. com/history/soul. html Santoro, G. (2003). Sweet Soul Music. Retrieved from  University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Ponomarenko, J. (2005). The history of Soul. Retrieved from www. localdial. com/users/jsyedu133/soulreview/understandingpages/the5. htm Unterb erger, R. (2010). The Queen of Soul, Aretha Franklin. Retrieved from www. aretha-franklin. com/bio. htm

Similarities Between The Glass Menagerie And A Dolls House

Realism is â€Å"An attempt to reproduce faithfully the surface appearance of life, especially that of ordinary people in everyday situations† (Kennedy 2081). Realism is shown throughout the two following plays. The Glass Menagerie is a play written by Tennessee Williams, and it was published in the year of 1945. The play being compared is A Doll’s House, written by Henrik Ibsen it was published in the year of 1879. In A Glass Menagerie realism is shown through the fact that Tom’s family is struggling with money. Tom can be seen as the protagonist of the story. Similarly, in A Doll’s House Nora’s family was struggling with money up until this year. Nora can be seen as the protagonist in this story. In A Doll’s House the claims given about†¦show more content†¦Nora and her husband have just found money through her husband’s raise at the bank, but Noar is unhappy with her relationship with Herman. â€Å"I mean that I was just passed from Papa’s hands to yours. You arranged everything according to your own taste, and so I had all the same taste’s† (Isben 1606). Nora is not happy with where she is in the relationship. She is just being led like cattle, but she is now leaving so she will not have to deal with it anymore. â€Å"I’m leaving right now† (Ibsen 1606). There are similarities and differences in these aspects between the two plays. Tom in The Glass Menagerie is also sympathized for, but he is not the center of attention until the end of the play. Laura and Jim are the center of attention. This is until the audience finds out Jim and his girlfriend Betty are â€Å"going to be married the second of June† (Williams 1656). The tone in this play can be seen as gloomy. Not one character in this play has found what they want in life. Tom wants happiness, his mother wants a good man, and Laura wants a husband to love her. Tom in The Glass Menagerie wants to better h is career and life, and Nora in A Doll’s house wants to better herself and pay back the debt she owes to Krogstad. In the end they both achieve their goal.In The Glass Menagerie Tom leaves to find a better life for himself, but he is then left with thinking about his sister and how he did her wrong. â€Å"Oh, Laura, Laura, I tried to leave youShow MoreRelatedEssay Prompts4057 Words   |  17 Pageson the Floss The Awakening Moby-Dick Billy Budd Mrs. Dalloway Bleak House Native Son Bless Me,Ultima One Hundred Years of Solitude Catch-22 Othello Crime and Punishment The Scarlet Letter The Crucible Slaughterhouse-Five A Farewell to Arms Song of Solomon Ghosts The Stone Angel The Great Gatsby The Stranger Heart of Darkness A Tale of Two Cities The House of Mirth Their Eyes Were Watching God Jude the Obscure 2003 (Form A): According

Business Issues, Ethics and Whistleblowing - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2480 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Q1. In this case, there are three main ethical issues, as following: Firstly, the two guys are construction workers and they should sign an engagement letter before working. However, the article did not state any content of the contract. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Business Issues, Ethics and Whistleblowing" essay for you Create order Maybe, the contract of employment did not state the fixed working hours due to flexible. They obtain recalling and they need to work on the site. It is also possible that the contract had a fixed working hours but no assigned location. This contract has clauses to restrict the scope of job, time and others. In fact, they should obey employment contract. On one hand, they should not obtain salary over their actual working hours if salary is based at working hours. On the other hand, they should not absent on working day if the contract listed working time. Anyway, the two guys have a legal relationship between them and their employer, and they breached the contract of employment. Thus, they received money over the amount of actual salary. There is conflict of interest between them and the employer. The reason is that the two men did not work on that day but the names were marked into the attendance book. After that, the day was regarded as working day for them and they would rec eive the salary of that day. That is to say, the company still paid money when they did not attend at work. Its expenditure does not equal employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ contribution. It leads to the profit of the company of the employer is less than actual profit. The implication is that its shareholders make less money. In fact, their behaviour would affect third partiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ interest and it is unethical. Moreover, they are not honest and straightforward even they justified a number of points why they had done. For example, attendance at work did not mean that the progress was faster. They could work hard to compensate the rest day lost after they were rest and renewed vigor. The productivity would be higher and they had never let Bobby down. In fact, they cannot prove the increased productivity and there is no evidence that it is useful for compensating the rest day lost. In addition, their logic does not make sense. Although their behaviour does not influent othe r workers, it is unfair for them. Because they did not work, they can receive salary on that day. Nevertheless, other workers worked on that day and they got salary that is as same as the two menà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. The conduct means whether workers attend at work are the same on salary. They breach the code of integrity and are lack of credibility for the company and other workers. According to the article, they expressed everybody knew about the system, seeing it as an incentive to their work or even a bonus. It means they and their colleagues cheat the company together, which is unethical action. The phenomenon does not become rationalization even if all do this event. They do not obey their duties of the employment. Final, Chui also breaks his duty of care since he is responsible for recording books and accounts. He marked the name of two men into the attendance book but they did not recall seeing on the site the day. Thus, it is seen he intentionally violate his duty. Alt hough it does not show whether Chui obtains an advantage, his conduct has been already wrong. If he receives any benefits on this situation, he will breach the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance (POBO). Of course, the conduct that the workers offer a benefit also breaks the POBO due to corruption. If it is real, they will be guilty of unethical behaviour and may be prosecuted under the POBO. Except that, he has a duty to report the record for his supervisor who is Bobby. According to the article, Chui had been Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right hand man for many years. In this case, he was not honest using his position as he defrauded the attendance of workers. He tried to mislead Bobby and the employer about the workersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ working day and make some benefits for the two men. To conclude, the above behaviour of the two men and Chui is unethical. Q2. Bobby should blow the whistle due to ethics of right and justice which is one of normative ethical theories. The eth ics of right and justice is not in accordance with the outcomes of a decision and it is based on business ethics. Rights are basic, unalienable, important entitlements that should be protected and respected, including rights to life, freedom and property. In this case, the employer has a right to protect his property but the two guys took some money which they should not own. They also did not respect other people because they did not contribute any manpower and got benefits as same as other working labour. Of course, Bobby was also one of the hard labour and they did not revere others effort. In addition, Bobby has a right to expose the unfair event. Besides, justice is the fair treatment that individuals obtain what they deserve. In other words, everyone strives in a situation and obtains the same benefits, it is fair. Everybody is to have an equal right under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. Ethics of right and justice includes fair procedures and fair outcomes. Fair procedures are that fairness is determined according to whether everybody acquires rewards for his or efforts. This is regarded as procedural justice. Although the two guys said everyone knew about the system and it is seen as an incentive to their work or even a bonus, the point cannot prove by evidence. What is more, Bobby did not know it. That is to say, someone does not know its existence. Their conduct is unfair for other workers since they did not work on that day but they received the salary of that day. In fact, other workers need to work hard on whole day. Thus, they are unfair for others, including Bobby. However, the two men certainly breach the ethics of right and justice. Hence, Bobby should blow the whistle. There are three possible personal consequences of Bobby if he followed my suggestion, as following: Promotion Bobby blows the whistle and then Clint knew the degree and implication of the system. Because the managers or employer have not known the event, the company still pays more salary for the staff. The conduct harms the interest of the company and its shareholders. After knowing the event, the company can avoid this expenditure so that it must reward Bobby. In order to encouraging the behaviour, the company awards him a bonus or promotes his position. His career will be better than prior. Moreover, the employer appreciates an honest employee due to benefits for the company. The reward tells all staff that does not do again and also remains vigilant at all time. Breaking a relationship among colleagues According to the article, the two men indicated everybody knew about the system, seeing it as an incentive o their work or even a bonus. That is to say, a lot of people have used the method in their job even it existed for a long time. Byblowing the whistle, Bobby displeases a great deal of colleagues. After knowing the event, Clint may stop the atmosphere at work and reconstruct the culture of the job. At the same time, his colleagues would lose a chance of making more money. Thus, they will be angry with Bobby even never acknowledge him. Besides, Bobby may become a person at work and it means he is isolated thanks to different from othersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ thinking. Disemployment When Clint also took part in the system and Bobby blows the whistle, they would make a contradiction between their thinking and behaviour. In fact, Clintà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s position was higher than Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and it reflects lots of people of various positions joined the system. They made more benefits in the potential rules, nevertheless, Bobby breaks them. In this case, Bobby is seen as trouble-makers. At the moment, Bobby is victimized and his career prospects in that company will be damaged. He may be fired or people provide him an acceptable bonus if he resigns voluntarily. Of course, he needs to sign an agreement not to disclose the issue to anyone else. What is more, his leave does not affect companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s daily operation since Clint would promote other colleague instead of him. Q3. There are two most prominent personal factors that might influence Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision, as following: Education and employment General speaking, the type and quality of education, including professional training, may affect attitudes towards ethics. Different major subjects would teach the various scope of content. It also changes peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s critical and independent thinking and views. For example, accounting students should learn Ethic of Code. They know more these knowledge than others so that they should know the implication of breaching ethics. Moreover, they should have higher critical thinking and doubt when they have higher educational background. They would analyze event at different level. If Bobby has higher educational background, he should sense and analyze whether the two men do wrong. He also considers what his duties are and whether there is a contradiction if he does not stop the behaviour. According to his learning, he should know the difference implication when he considers various solutions. Besides, employment experience also affects ethical decision making. When a person owns some working experience, the person should deal with various predicaments easily. Or, the person dealt with the situation in prior entities. Thus, he thinks it is not danger and always does the unethical conduct. If that is real, in this case, Bobby should not expose their event to third parties. To opposite, his working experience tells him that consequence is very serious since his previous colleague was a prisoner by similar occurrence. He must vigilant self and does not conceal the event even they are closed friends. Education and employment are that let them know themselves situations and may reduce the risk of unethical behaviour. Thus, they are too important for Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision making. Personal integrity Personal integrity is an adherence to moral principles or values. It is also people with integrity have a set of personal values that they live up to and follow consistently. Personal values should consistent with organizational values if conflicts are to be avoided. When they disagree with some points on an organizational or business issue, because it conflicts with their personal integrity, they need to face a potentially troubling moral dilemma. The degree of personal integrity influence strongly ethical decision-making. In this case, the two guys did the unethical behaviour but other workers easily accepted as a lot of colleagues do it. If Bobby has integrity and adherence his moral rules, he disapproves them and needs some courage to report it. At the same time, he needs to accept whistle blowerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s result, such as discrimination by other workers. If he does not have personal integrity, that is to be not adherence his moral requirements, he could give u p blowing whistle. And then, he disguises that he does not know anything even he takes part in this system. Therefore, personal integrity is so prminent for Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision making. The following two items are the most prominent situational factors that might influence Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision. Reward system Context-related factor is that different procedures and systems in every entity offer the context for business decisions and may affect the outcome. Rewards, one of context-related factor, are salary, bonus, health care, commission, fees for extra work, subsidized meals at work, and so forth. Sometimes, partial companies would provide employees a lot of rewards because of encouraging their ethical behaviour. When too much emphasis is focused on motivation to perform, employees may adopt unethical practices to obtain the bonus or commission. Therefore, the design of reward system in a company is very important. If Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s company has some requirements that the working hour of employees is over than specific hours, they would have an additional bonus. Bobby may not expose the two menà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s behaviour even he also joins the event. The reason is that he may try to meet the number of hours in order to achieving the bonus threshold. It should not encourage , as a result, managers establish carefully ethical reward systems. If Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s company has a set of perfect reward systems, the above situation should be avoided. The company sets a reward for encouraging employees to blow the whistle. Setting hotline, it does not publish the name of whistle blower and investigate the unethical event. If the investigation proves that it is true, it should pay secretly a bonus for the whistle blower and punish the wrong-doer. In addition, Bobby needs to take a high risk, such as breaking relationship among colleagues. The reward can be regards as compensation. Although fame and wealth cannot buy all nor do all, they are the root of many offences. People easily are induced even if they know they do wrong something. When they successfully do on first time, they will continue the action. Thus, the reward can become a tool of inducing offences. At the same time, benefits also push employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ report. Whether the des ign of reward systems is useful or useless is based on the setter. Therefore, it is too important. Group norms Group norms, another one of context-related factor, are entitiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ expectations about how a great deal of members of the group should behave. They are to be a combination of training and experience and suggest what things are done, or not done. They determine how the members of the group are expected to act. Group norms evolve year by year as experience grows and circumstances change. Sometimes, the members would follow the norm and new members quickly learn what is expected. In Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s working community, it is assumption that employees have a norm that they do not pay attention each other and only concern themselves. What is more, Bobby works there for a long time. He should know the norm and does not have a hand in this event. New staff learns the norm at the beginning of employment and they should know the existing staff would comply with companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rules, including some ethical conduct. If Bobby until obey the requirements, he should not harbor criminals as the behaviour will violate the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s norm. In this case, the two men indicated many people know the system. It reflects others accept the fact, which is norm. Thus, Bobby may be obedient the system. To conclude, group norm is also prominent for the influence of Bobbyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision making. Reference: BBUS B368 Business Issues and Ethics, Unit 1-2: OUHK Andrew Crane Dirk Matten, Business ethics (third edition): Oxford